Grace O'Malley/ "Granuaile"
A book by Anne Chambers "Granuaile: Grace O'Malley - Ireland's Pirate Queen" helps bring her back to life.
Ironically, while Grace was written out of history by male Irish historians, her enemy - the English - would help to preserve her life's story through their archives. For her book, Anne Chambers consulted the source documents directly and helped piece together the tale of Grace's life.
"There came to me also a most famous feminine sea captain called Granny Imallye and offered her services unto me ... with three galleys and two hundred fighting men ... This was a notorious woman in all the coasts of Ireland." (Lord Deputy of Ireland, 1577)
The O'Malleys
The clan of Ui Mhaille (O'Malley) was said to be descended from the eldest son of a king of Connacht, Brian Orbsen.They were a seafaring clan who lived on the west coast of Ireland within county Mayo, in the province of Connacht.
Hereditary lords of the region were called 'Owles' (anglicized, meaning 'territory') and over time the O'Malleys divided into two distinct groups known as the upper and lower 'Owles of O'Malley'. The 'upper owl' was the Barony of Murrisk, to the south of Clew Bay; the 'lower owl' was that of Burrishoole to the north.
Nearby were their neighbors the Bourke clan. They used the title 'MacWilliam' and were known as the 'lower and upper MacWilliam'. The 'lower' resided in Mayo while the 'upper' were situated in Galway.
Although the MacWilliam were technically overlords, the O'Malleys did not pay tribute. The clans were close neighbors - trading together and intermarrying; one chieftain gave his daughter Sabina away in marriage to a Mayo MacWilliam. However, in the past they had paid tribute to Connacht kings (while the province still had a kingship):
“In the ancient Book of Rights (Leabhar na gCeart) which lists the rights and tributes to be paid to the king of Connaught, it is thus recorded: ‘the command of the fleet to OFlaherti and O’Mali, wherever he goes on sea or high sea.’ O’Malley paid the king … a yearly tribute of ‘one hundred milch cows, one hundred hogs and one hundred casks of beer.’ The king in return for O’Malley’s service … presented him with the substantial annual gift of ‘five ships, five horses, five swords, and five corselets.’”The O'Malleys sustained themselves from both land and sea, but mainly the latter. Their clan motto was Terra marique potens ("powerful by land and sea"). They traveled by boat to Scotland, England, Spain and France.
As was common at the time, they claimed "lordship" or jurisdiction over their immediate sea territory. They levied tolls for passage and sold fishing rights to foreign fleets. As one writer complained:
“Towards the sea coast there lieth many fair islands, rich and plentiful of all commodities, there cometh hither every year likely about fifty English ships for fishing. They have been compelled to pay a great tribute to the O’Malleys”Galway city became a center of trade but its wealthy merchant families prohibited any non-residents from trading there, forcing the O'Malleys to travel elsewhere. They derived their living from fishing local waters, plundering and piracy. They also ferried the "gallowglass" (foreign warriors) from Scotland to Ireland, where they'd been hired by local chieftains to fight rivals.
“... their mobility by sea gave the O’Malleys distinct advantages over their land-bound neighbors. It provided them with an escape route from their enemies in time of attack ... It allowed them access to foreign markets to sell their produce in exchange for goods unavailable at home.”The O'Malleys also had orders of monks on their land and built at least two abbeys for them: one on Clare Island (1224) and one at Murrisk (1457).
As for politically: "they continued as an independent clan, the O’Malley chieftain being the only Gaelic chieftain in Mayo to retain his rank until the extinction of the title in the seventeenth century.”
During her time
Ireland's rich history of powerful women leaders and warriors had subsided by the sixteenth century due to the influence of Christianity and its accompanying Roman law.
The indigenous law of Ireland known as the Brehon law was still followed, but had incorporated the Roman salic law - which barred women from any leadership roles. Women were relegated to childbearing, charity, and subservience.
At this time Ireland was made up of sixty counties, and had sixty-eight chief captains; the population was no more than 700,000. The English had no accurate maps of the country which still remained largely a mystery to them.
Gaelic society was compromised of clans (extended family groups). Chieftains were elected by members of the ruling sept (family) within the clan.
They did not practice primogeniture (right of succession to the first son). Instead they practiced tanistry: a custom in which an elected-successor was chosen during the chieftain's lifetime.
The distribution of land differed per region. On the death of a chieftain, clan lands were redistributed among members.
Fosterage was commonly practiced: the son of an overlord would live with a sub-lord to strengthen ties. Sons born out of wedlock were not discriminated against on a social or legal basis.
The chieftains power was based on clientship - wherein they tried to have as many sub-lords as possible under their control. The sub-lords were forced to pay dues, tributes, and provide a number of men to assist in war.
Society was controlled by the ruling class (property owners), followed by the freemen and landless labourers who worked for them. There was also the learned-class (poets, bards, judges), and military men.
Cattle was a main source of wealth; hides were exported. Leisure time was spent hunting deer and wild boar or participating in falconry. In the winter months storytellers and musicians came by to entertain; people played chess, dice, and card games.
Unlike England, which had unified under one monarch, Ireland continued to be plagued by inter-clan feuding and warfare. While England had a centralized authority under the Tudors, Ireland remained divided - leaving it ripe for takeover.
Granuaile
Grainne Ni Mhaille (anglicized Grace O'Malley) or "Granuaile" as she's known to the Irish, was born in 1530. Her father was a chieftain named Owen Dubhdara ("Black Oak") O'Malley, who was the Barony of Murrisk. Her mother Margaret hailed from a family near Moher. She had one brother Donal, nicknamed "Donal of the pipes".
Since 'fosterage' wasn't practiced with girls, it's likely Grace spent her whole childhood with her family. While girls weren't formally educated, at some point she did learn Latin and English - which she would later converse in.
Women were not welcome at sea, and as a rule weren't sailors or pirates. However, it's clear from Grace's later life that she learned navigation and sea-faring from her father, as she would go on to command a fleet of ships for forty years. In all likelihood she spent a significant amount of time with her father on boats and the sea, when she was not at her two residences in Belcare and Clare Island.
By the time of his death, many chieftains and lords had agreed to his terms; the O'Malleys in Mayo remained unscathed, while those in non-anglicized portions of Ireland ignored English politics.
At sixteen years old Grace married Donal O'Flaherty, chieftain of Barony of Ballinahinch. He was a stubborn and reckless character known as 'Donal of the battles', who constantly feuded with neighbors. She bore him two sons: Owen and Murrough, then daughter Margaret.
"It was during her marriage to Donal ... that, whether through his inadequacies as a chieftain or simply by her own inclination, Granuaile superseded him in his authority over his clan and, more incredible still, was accepted by his clansmen, many of whom chose to leave Iar-Chonnacht and return with her to live under her rule in Umhall."Grace and her sea crew began attacking ships sailing into the port of Galway. For safe passage, ships were required to pay a toll or a portion of their cargo.
The new appointment set off a scramble for power in the region. During this time, Donal died - forcing Grace to defend one of their contested castles against his rivals and a group of English soldiers. The queen's new tactic of 'divide-and-conquer' soon made Gaelic law unenforceable and changed the dynamic of the country.
Widowed, Grace returned to her father's territory with the O'Flaherty men who chose to follow her.
"She settled on Clare Island and from there ... launched herself on a career of piracy and plunder, which ... was to establish her as the legendary Pirate Queen of Ireland."
Pirate
Grace assembled a force of 'two hundred fighting men':
"Her army comprised men from various clans: O'Malley, Bourke, O'Flaherty, MacCormack, MacNally, Conroy, Clandonnell. That these clansmen were prepared to abscond from their own clan structure, with its inherent obligations and allegiances ... and, strangest of all, accept the leadership of a woman, contrary to male pride and native mores, is, given the times, a unique tribute to her leadership."After her father's death the O'Malley fleet came under Grace's possession. She continued to accumulate cattle and horses on land, and by 1593 had over a thousand. With her men, she attacked and plundered along the Irish coasts, gaining fame.
She seized Doona Castle, reputedly as revenge for the murder of her lover. Previously having heard news of a shipwreck, she'd crossed stormy waters and found him:
"Amidst the wreckage she rescued a young man caught fast in the rocks. She took him aboard and brought him back with the salvage to Clare Island. His name was Hugh de Lacy, the sone of a wealthy merchant from Wexford. They became lovers, but their joy was short-lived. While hunting deer on Achill Island, Hugh was killed by the MacMahons of Doona Castle."In another famous incident, Grace stopped by Howth Castle for supplies - which was within the English Pale. Seeking hospitality from the Earth of Howth, she was declined entrance and locked out. Greatly insulted by this treatment, she kidnapped his grandson (and heir) and sailed away with him. The Earl offered ransom money which she scorned, and the boy was finally released after the Earl's promise "that the gates of Howth Castle would never again be closed and that an extra place would henceforth be set at his table for anyone seeking hospitality."
In the meantime, political events were unfolding; Spain, with its Catholic king Philip, was becoming an even larger threat to Elizabethan England. On a deputy's suggestion - England began to colonize Ireland, rather than financing troops. Englishmen without a birthright in their home country traveled to Ireland for property and titles. As a justification for colonization, the English claimed the Irish were barbarous and needed a 'civilizing' influence.
In 1569 Sir Edward Fitton was established as the military governor of Connacht. Another was appointed President of Munster, further entrenching the English into previously native Irish territory.
Second family
By 1567 Grace had re-married a man named Richard-an-Iarainn ("In Iron") Bourke, son of the previous MacWilliam. By this time Grace was in her late 30's - a remarkable feat considering her lifestyle, coupled with the fact that the life expectancy of the time was forty-years. Her husband didn't attempt to control or outshine her. In their marriage:
"...the combination of his military strength and her considerable political acumen, together with her sea power, made them a formidable couple."They had one son together named Theobald, also known as "Toby of the Ships" or Tibbott. It was said he was born on a ship at sea; attacked by Algerian pirates the day thereafter, which Grace helped the crew to fight off.
A poem about Tibbott written during his lifetime, states:
Tioboid a Burc of the valiant feats
Of the hawklike blue eye ...
He is the warrior whose curving neck
With ringleted golden-yellow hair
Is secretly loved by girls in every region...
He is the ruddy-cheeked heir of Grainne.
Tibbott was fostered by a sub-chieftain. In 1571 a new MacWilliam was elected and Grace's husband became the tanaiste. The English administration continued to expand and encroach into native territory.
Grace carried on plundering but was captured by the Earl of Desmond in Munster. She spent a year and a half as prisoner before being released for reasons unknown. After being released, merchants of Galway city hired soldiers to lay siege to her home but they were driven out.
The Earl of Desmond's cousin arrived with a fleet from Spain, hoping to incite Ireland to join them in war. He was later killed in a non-related incident, which led to the Earl taking over his role. In consequence he was declared a traitor and Munster was embroiled in war for the next 4 years.
The Earl made a plea to Grace's husband Richard who went on to offer assistance. By then there was a newly appointed governor of Connacht named Nicholas Malby. He drove Richard out before overtaking the Earl's forces and killing men, women and children. Malby then sent a garrison of soldiers to Richard's home, who in the end was forced to sign a document of submission. Due to other rising conflicts, a distracted Malby then pardoned Richard.
In 1580 the MacWilliam of Mayo died and his brother claimed the right of succession according to English law. Grace and Richard raised an army of 1400 to take the MacWilliam. Hoping to quell any inter-warring, Malby held negotiations before granting Richard the MacWilliam.
At twelve years old, Tibbott moved to a new fosterage family. Although Richard was the MacWilliam he was forced into agreements with the English, including paying rent and having a garrison of soldiers on his territory. He died on April 30, 1583 of natural causes; he would be the last tanaiste.
Instead of going to the next tanaiste, Malby gave the MacWilliam to the previous title-holder's brother - according to English law. This gave rise to a resistance that was quickly put down. By this time Grace was fifty-three; Tibbott was nearly sixteen and received his inheritance in Burrishoole, along with his two half-brothers. Malby died shortly thereafter, but English expansion into Ireland continued unabated and was strengthened with the impositions of rent and soldiers.
Rebel
In 1584, Sir Richard Bingham was appointed governor of Connacht. He was a tough, stern character who preferred conflict to protracted negotiations or any concessions.
The next year, the 'Composition of Connacht' was implemented. It extended English control over Gaelic affairs in many ways, including barring sub-chieftains from giving tribute to their Irish overlords.
During a dispute, Bingham managed to capture Tibbott; he was sent to the home of Bingham's brother George and held as a hostage for over a year. They attempted to anglicize him and taught him to write and speak in English. At some point prior to, or around this time - Tibbott married Maeve O'Connor Sligo.
Tibbot's brother Owen O'Flaherty had married the daughter of Edmund Bourke of Castlebar. Edmund was the tanaiste, however Bingham followed English law and gave the MacWilliam's property to the title-holder's son; this caused the rebellion of several clans.
During the rebellion Bingham's brother Sir John captured Owen. He was stabbed twelve times, which Sir John claimed was during an 'escape attempt'.
Devastated and enraged by her son's death, Grace helped lead the revolt against Bingham with renewed vigor. She set sail to Scotland for reinforcements but was captured by Sir John Bingham. While she was in prison, some members of her extended family were executed.
She was set free after a pledge by her son-in-law (known as "Devil's Hook"), who then promptly joined the rebellion. Grace met up with chieftains in Ulster to help instigate further rebellion; Bingham would quash it and kill 1400 Scottish 'gallowglass' in the process.Grace carried on plundering but was captured by the Earl of Desmond in Munster. She spent a year and a half as prisoner before being released for reasons unknown. After being released, merchants of Galway city hired soldiers to lay siege to her home but they were driven out.
The Earl of Desmond's cousin arrived with a fleet from Spain, hoping to incite Ireland to join them in war. He was later killed in a non-related incident, which led to the Earl taking over his role. In consequence he was declared a traitor and Munster was embroiled in war for the next 4 years.
The Earl made a plea to Grace's husband Richard who went on to offer assistance. By then there was a newly appointed governor of Connacht named Nicholas Malby. He drove Richard out before overtaking the Earl's forces and killing men, women and children. Malby then sent a garrison of soldiers to Richard's home, who in the end was forced to sign a document of submission. Due to other rising conflicts, a distracted Malby then pardoned Richard.
In 1580 the MacWilliam of Mayo died and his brother claimed the right of succession according to English law. Grace and Richard raised an army of 1400 to take the MacWilliam. Hoping to quell any inter-warring, Malby held negotiations before granting Richard the MacWilliam.
At twelve years old, Tibbott moved to a new fosterage family. Although Richard was the MacWilliam he was forced into agreements with the English, including paying rent and having a garrison of soldiers on his territory. He died on April 30, 1583 of natural causes; he would be the last tanaiste.
Instead of going to the next tanaiste, Malby gave the MacWilliam to the previous title-holder's brother - according to English law. This gave rise to a resistance that was quickly put down. By this time Grace was fifty-three; Tibbott was nearly sixteen and received his inheritance in Burrishoole, along with his two half-brothers. Malby died shortly thereafter, but English expansion into Ireland continued unabated and was strengthened with the impositions of rent and soldiers.
Rebel
The next year, the 'Composition of Connacht' was implemented. It extended English control over Gaelic affairs in many ways, including barring sub-chieftains from giving tribute to their Irish overlords.
During a dispute, Bingham managed to capture Tibbott; he was sent to the home of Bingham's brother George and held as a hostage for over a year. They attempted to anglicize him and taught him to write and speak in English. At some point prior to, or around this time - Tibbott married Maeve O'Connor Sligo.
Tibbot's brother Owen O'Flaherty had married the daughter of Edmund Bourke of Castlebar. Edmund was the tanaiste, however Bingham followed English law and gave the MacWilliam's property to the title-holder's son; this caused the rebellion of several clans.
During the rebellion Bingham's brother Sir John captured Owen. He was stabbed twelve times, which Sir John claimed was during an 'escape attempt'.
Devastated and enraged by her son's death, Grace helped lead the revolt against Bingham with renewed vigor. She set sail to Scotland for reinforcements but was captured by Sir John Bingham. While she was in prison, some members of her extended family were executed.
“The importation of Scottish mercenaries was deemed a treasonable offence and Granuaile’s life hung by a thread. Her reputation as a ‘drawer in of Scots’ was well established and Bingham now also wrote of her to the English court as being the ‘nurse to all rebellions in the province for forty years’.”
Queen Elizabeth withdrew Bingham and sent him to Flanders. Using the newly afforded opportunity, Grace met with his rival Sir John Perrot in Dublin and secured an official pardon.
Bingham monitored Grace and the clans closely for any signs of aiding and abetting the Spanish. He then declared his right to enter into their territories and prosecute 'traitors' at will. The clans claimed this was a personal vendetta and hadn't been approved by all the proper authorities; so a third Bourke rebellion began.
On February 7 1589, the sheriff arrived with two-hundred and fifty men; in the ensuing conflict Grace's grandson Richard Bourke (son of Margaret) was killed along with twenty-five soldiers. Now numerous clans began to unite in a widespread rebellion along with an army of five-hundred men. Grace assisted by sea, along with her son Tibbott and stepson; plundering the coast right into Galway city.
Queen Elizabeth enraged Bingham by ordering a 'conciliatory policy' toward the clans. Negotiations began between the Bourke leaders and the English; a book of complaints was presented against the Bingham brothers.
A trial took place in Dublin to determine the charges against Sir Richard Bingham. He was found not guilty and reinstated. Ordered to bring a close to the rebellion, he marched with an army of over a thousand men - plundering and killing.
“Arriving in Burrishoole, he found most of the inhabitants had fled before him into the islands in Clew Bay. Lack of boats prevented him from pursuing them, but he took retribution in another way as he reported: ‘100 cows and I slew all the churls, women and children.’ The rebellion began to crumble.”
The clans began to submit, with the exception of Grace's stepson Edmund and son Tibbott, whom she aided.
Her second son Murrough-ne-Maor O'Flaherty submitted, becoming an ally of Bingham in order to receive his assistance against local rivals. Grace was furious and decided to teach him a lesson:
In 1592 Tibbot was approached to begin a rebellion in Mayo; he was promised the MacWilliam and aid from the Spanish - which never materialized. He attacked a castle of Bingham's but was unsuccessful; his principal ally submitted.“His aforesaid mother Grany (being out of charety with her sonne …) manned out her Navy of Galleys and landed in Ballinehencie where he dwelleth, burned his towen and spoiled his people of their cattayle and goods and murdered 3 or 4 of his men which offered to make resistance …”
In retaliation Bingham raided Grace's lands, brought English warships into Clew Bay and impounded most of her fleet. Eventually she was forced to agree to terms with severe penalties, including making restitution for war costs; her family was were left with next to nothing.
By now Grace was in her sixties, but she refused to give up.
Meeting with the Queen
In 1593 at sixty-three years old, Grace wrote a petition to Queen Elizabeth regarding her situation. She asked to be allowed to continue at sea, and offered in return to take on the queen's enemies. She plead her widowhood and age as reasons for leniency:
“In tender consideracion whereof and in regard of her great age … to grant her some reasonable maintenance for the little tyme she hath to lyve.”That May, a rebellion broke out which Tibbott was implicated in. Bingham captured him and charged him with treason. He also arrested Grace's brother Donal - charging him with murdering English soldiers.
“Her son’s imprisonment by her avowed enemy galvanised Granuaile into action, to undertake the most hazardous voyage of her career. Haste was imperative if she was to save Tibbott’s life. From experience she had every reason to believe that Bingham would not be slow to resort to the summary execution of her son …”That June, Grace sailed to England, traveling right up the Thames:
“Her journey was, nonetheless, daunting. Few Gaelic chieftains with such a documented and established record of rebellion and piracy would dared put foot on English soil … As her galley passed by Wapping Stairs on the river Thames she would have seen for herself the terrible fate meted out to pirates whose rotting corpses hung in iron cages suspended over the river’s edge.”During her wait to see the the queen, Grace corresponded with William Cecil (Treasurer) and answered many of his questions regarding her family and life - which remain preserved in English state papers.
Doubtless they were able to find common ground: they were the same age; both held power and were unique women for their time. Both knew the realities of struggling to rise against the ambitions and resentment of men wanting to usurp their roles. Likely the queen was impressed by this woman who had led men in battle and piracy, captained ships and acted as a chieftain to the 'barbarous Irish'.
On her part, Grace asked for protection against Bingham and the right to 'maintenance by land and sea' as before. The queen gave her consent and agreed to investigate complaints into Bingham. When asked to explain his conduct - Bingham was incensed. He protested he had not behaved out of order and that all his actions had been done for her Majesty.
Grace remained in London into autumn. The queen ordered Bingham to release Tibbott and Donal; also that "provision be made for Granuaile out of her son's estates, the amount to be deducted at her personal command, from their crown taxes." They were to be returned ownership of their property and allowed to live 'in peace'.
Final years
When Grace returned home:
“She started to rebuild her fleet and with three large galleys, which English records describe as being capable of carrying three hundred men apiece, commenced a new chapter in her trade of ‘maintenance by land and sea.’"But Bingham was not predisposed to concede willingly: he ordered a captain and troops to accompany Grace at sea and monitor her movements; he also sent soldiers to reside on her property - depleting her resources.
In April 1595, Grace went to seek help from the Earl of Ormond. She offered:
“… to serve with a hundred men at her owne charges at seas upon the coaste of Ireland in her Majesties warres uponn all occasions from Easter to Michelmas”
She then set sail to England a second time to plead her case to Lord Burghley. After making enemies of fellow administrators in Ireland, Bingham would later flee the country and end up imprisoned in England.
Difficulties were not over, however. Grace and her sons would have continual trouble from Red Hugh O'Donnell as he ravaged and pursued their lands. At one point Tibbott was taken prisoner, but managed to escape. Eventually O'Donnell's plundering - and Ulster rebellion - would finish with the battle of Kinsale.
Grace lived into her early seventies and is thought to have died in 1603. Twenty years later an English lord would reference her fame, commenting that Mayo residents:
"... have been always more apt to rebellion than any in that kingdom in soe much that the very women have borne armes there, whereof Grany ne Maly was famous and is yett renowned by them"
