Vlad the Impaler/Dracula

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"Dracula: Prince of Many Faces"  is a biography by Radu R. Florescu and Raymond T. McNally. The authors spent over twenty years researching its subject matter and wrote three prior books about Dracula. For readers seeking a more in-depth account of Vlad's life or the particulars around the 'Dracula' legend, this is the book to read.

Dracula as inspiration

 The fictional vampire in Dracula was inspired by a historical person; the locations in the novel exist as actual locations researched by Stoker.
"Even a cursory glance at the novel reveals a significant difference from other gothic novels: Dracula mentions specific geographic locations, both in Europe and in England, such as Whitby and sites in the greater London area. Most readers, however, believed that Transylvania, where the count's castle is located, was a "Ruritania" a "Never-Never-Land". 
The authors discovered that one of the principal characters (Jonathan Harker) had used a route with a remarkable amount of detail taken from reality: train lines, hotels, even menu dishes. Stoker accurately described the topography of the countryside; its towns, sights, and history - proving that he had researched the subject at length.
"Through Van Helsing, Stoker is most explicit about the historical roots of his fictional count. Van Helsing thinks he can identify Dracula the vampire's historical prototype: "He must, indeed, have been that Voivode Dracula who won his name against the Turk, over the great river on the very frontier of Turky-land [meaning the Danube]."
Stoker writes with accuracy regarding Dracula, his brother, and warring against the Ottomans. He references past events, battles and other details, and links his fictional count with the living legend. Just as Transylvania is an actual place, Dracula was in fact a man who lived under that name.

The world in his time 

Dracula was born in 1431 and died in 1476; he lived during the Renaissance period. Constantinople still survived but was no longer a major military power. The French were emerging from The Hundred Years' War and had liberated the country from the English. In England they were battling through the Wars of the Roses, and in Spain and Portugal they were seeking expansion westward throughout the globe. Italy was a patchwork of warring city-states and republics; with the Medici family establishing banking in the north and the papacy ruling Rome despite inner conflicts.

The days of crusading for the Christian cause had passed; states were busy with their own power struggles at home and could not afford the money or men needed. Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism had created a schism between East and West, and reunionification was considered a condition for joint action against the Turks.

The Turks had taken over up to the Danube, allowing for some semi-autonomous states. They did not force conversion on their subjects, but allowed them to keep their religion so long as they paid tribute. They caused outrage however, by taking Christian boys from the Balkans and inducting them into the army as "jannissaries". Despite the threat of their expansion, western powers stuck to diplomacy and avoided war to focus on local matters.
"Dracula became a crusader because his country was, by virtue of geography, the one most immediately threatened by the Turks."

Ancestors 
"Dracula came from a native ruling family the first known ancestor of which was Basarab the Great (1310 - 1352) a shadowy early ruler of Wallachia of whom little is known ... 
The best known of the early Basarabs is Mircea the Old, sometimes referred to as Mircea the Great, Dracula's grandfather ...
Mircea had one legitimate son: Mihail, who was co-ruler with his father for 10 years. He had several illegitimate sons including Alexandru Aldea (who ruled in 1431, briefly) and Vlad (Dracula's father).

Order of the Dragon 

 Dracula's father (Vlad Dracul) was inducted into the Order of the Dragon:
"In the early dawn of February 8, 1431, a most unusual ceremony took place ... which involved Vlad's induction into the Order of the Dragon. "
The Order's objectives included: defending the empire, defending Catholicism against 'heretics' and crusading against the Turks. He was one of twenty-four 'first class' members initiated and considered it a great honor. Required attire was:
... the wearing of two capes, of differing colors to suit differing occasions: one green, reminiscent of the dragon's hue, which was worn over a red garment representing the blood of the martyrs; one black ... to be worn only on Fridays or during the commemoration of Christ's Passion. In addition, each member of the order was given a golden necklace or collar on which appeared the insigne of the dragon in a medallion ... The dragon was represented with two wings and four paws outstretched, jaws half open and its tail curled around its head and its back cleft in two, hanging prostrate on a double cross ..." 
Infamous name
"When he eventually returned to his native country, Vlad was called "Dracul" by the boyars, who knew of his honor, because he was a Draconist, a member of the Order of the Dragon (draco in Latin) dedicated to fighting Turks and heretics. On the other hand, the people at large, unfamiliar with the details of Vlad's investiture in the order, seeing a dragon on his shield, and later on his coins, called him "Dracul" with the meaning of "devil", because in Orthodox iconography, particularly those ikons that depicted St. George slaying a dragon, the dragon symbolized the devil.
"The word drac (-ul is simply the definite article "the") can mean both "devil" and "dragon" in the Romanian language... Dracula, with the a, is simply a diminutive meaning "son of the dragon." 
Vlad (the father) was known as Dracul, whereas his son Vlad signed letters by the title Dracula and "historians used Dracula to describe all members of the family as well as their descendants, who were collectively known as the Draculestis."

Early Years

 At the beginning of his childhood, Dracula's father was the appointed military governor of Transylvania. He had several brothers: Mircea, born in 1428, Radu, born in 1435, one known as 'Vlad the Monk', and likely unnamed others.

During his early youth (5 - 11) he spent a great deal of time with the ladies of the court; he was taught etiquette, the Romanian language and physical fitness: swimming, fencing, jousting, archery and horsemanship.
“From the tenderest age, a great deal of emphasis was placed on physical fitness – even at court, children were exposed to the elements on stormy days in true Spartan tradition; should they survive the chills and fevers of the accompanying colds, they were considered to have strong physical and moral character, essential traits of good warriors. For physical exercise, even a five-year-old had to be able to ride an unsaddled horse at a gallop to the local fountain or grazing field.”
Turkish years

After battles between Christians and Turks, Dracul was invited to see Sultan Murad II in Gallipoli. He brought two of his sons with him: Dracula and Radu.
“As soon as he had reached the city gates, the prince was seized by a Turkish contingent, and bound in chains. His two young sons were taken away to the distant mountain fortress of Egrigoz, in Asia Minor.”
Dracul was held in custody at Gallipoli and then for a year in Adrianople, while his eldest son Mircea ruled in Wallachia (1442-1443). Eventually he was released after he swore a promise not to take any action against the Turks. He was also forced to leave his sons behind as hostages; Dracula would live there another six years - until 1448, and Radu until 1462.
“On the whole, Dracula, a gaunt and rather ungainly youth, was a difficult pupil, prone to temper bouts; the whip and other forms of punishment were often resorted to in order to cow him into obedience. By way of contrast, there was Radu, whose unusual good looks and sensuality attracted the female members of the seraglio as well as the male “minions” in the Sultan’s court. Because of their differences of character, temperament, and physique, the two brothers developed for each other an intense hatred, which was exacerbated by the associated differences in treatment they received.”
Radu was pursued by Mehmed II, the heir to the throne. At first he resisted all advances, but eventually gave in and became a "minion". He also became a protege and the favored candidate for the throne. 

Beginning to rise

In 1447, Dracula's elder brother Mircea was killed by rivals who tortured him and buried him alive. His father Dracul fled the city at night hoping to reach friendly Turkish troops on the Danube, but was caught and assassinated in marshes surrounding the village of Balteni by Bucharest. 

At the end of the year, Dracula heard of his father's death. He was now technically 'free' and was made an officer in the Turkish army. 

After a series of battles between Christians and Turks, Dracula saw an opportunity to seize the throne. Supported by Turkish cavalry and a borrowed contingent of troops, he lead a successful coup and installed himself on the throne. However, his tenure would last only two months. 

With assistance from the prince of Moldavia, Vladislav II managed to remove Dracula from power; who was forced to flee southward and find refuge at Adrianople with the Turks. 

Dracula spent more time in the court of Muran II and married. His wife was the sister of the prince of Moldavia. Through the marriage he was able to travel to Moldavia and meet with the prince. He lived in the capital city (Suceava) for two years and was joined by his cousin Stephen. 

In 1450, he fought an invading Polish army on behalf of the prince. A year later, the prince was assassinated by his brother; Dracula was forced to flee with his cousin, escaping to Transylvania through the Borgo Pass. 

He hid at the estate of a friendly boyar, then fled to Sibiu. After being forewarned, he managed to foil an assassination plot. 

Dracula went on to strike a deal with a former rival - Hunyadi. He was offered a military appointment in his army and a minor function in the court. He also accepted responsibility for the defense of the Transylvanian frontier against Turkish attack.

Second reign

 In 1453 Constantinople was invaded by the Turks. The Turkish army won: 4,000 people were killed and 50,000 men, women and children were enslaved; Emperor Constantinople XI was also killed in battle. Venetian soldiers who had escaped by swimming and stealthy travels, passed through Sibiu:
“Among countless stories of sufferings and atrocities, they related how those of their shipmates who were captured by the Turks were impaled by order of the Sultan on stakes planted in full view of the beleaguered city.”
In the years of 1455-1456, Sultan Mehmed II (son, having ascended the throne) began preparations to attack Hungary via the city of Belgrade. Dracula headed an army mostly comprised of Romanian mercenaries. His duty was to stay at Sibiu and watch the Transylvanian passes; he was also to head an offensive against Vladislav II - now allied with the Turks.
“By mid-July, at the very time when the Turks and Hunyadi’s forces were locked in combat at Belgrade, Dracula engaged Vladislav II in combat somewhere near Tirgoviste. He had the satisfaction of killing his mortal enemy and his father’s assassin in hand-to-hand combat.”
The Christian forces won an unexpected victory at Belgrade, but Hunyadi succumbed to the plague.

In August of 1456, at twenty-five years old, Dracula began his reign; he was elected by a small boyar council as law decreed. He received a delegation from the Sultan and agreed to its terms, which included yearly tribute - something he refused to accompany in person.

Dracula immediately began to consolidate his power. He was:
“… determined to crush the power of the nobility, centralize the administration of the state, and create a military force loyal only to himself, a process well-nigh completed in most of the western states. 
He planned to appease the Turks as long as was necessary to gain control over his domestic affairs. His other priority was hunting down the partisans of Vladislav II who remained, and eradicating them all down to the last male heir - no matter the age.

Decimation of the boyars

 In the spring of 1457, Dracula began his campaign against the boyars.
“He [Dracula] had found out that the boyars of Tirgoviste had buried one of his brothers alive. In order to know the truth he searched for his brother in the grave and found him lying face downward. So when Easter Day came, while all the citizens were feasting and the young ones were dancing he surrounded them … led them together with their wives and children … to Poenari [Castle Dracula], where they were put to work until their clothes were torn and they were left naked.”
“On the way out of the chapel the old boyars and their wives were apprehended by Dracula’s henchmen and impaled beyond the city walls. The young and able-bodied were manacled and chained to each other and then marched northward under the vigilant eye of Dracula’s men.” 
Two-hundred boyars and their wives were forced into labor to reconstruct the castle. They were marched fifty miles, traveling two days.

Many of the old families fled to far-flung estates or Turkey. Dracula gave confiscated lands to new men, many of 'low birth'. Almost ninety-percent of his boyars came from the lowly-class or were free peasants.

He controlled all aspects of the military and judiciary; he even created his own independent military force to follow his decrees. In addition, he expected the utmost respect due his authority. As one writer relates: a Genoese delegation came to visit and refused to take off their skullcaps; they explained to Dracula that it was against their beliefs and they could not remove them even for the Sultan or Holy Roman Emperor. He told them he 'wished to honor their traditions' and then had the caps nailed to their heads.

Peasantry

 For the most part, the peasants viewed Dracula rather favorably. After some time he refused to send tribute to the Sultan, and completely opposed enrolling children into the Janissary corps. The rich could no longer bribe their way out of punishment, and there was a general feeling that the people of the land were all judged and treated with equal harshness. It was said:
“Dracula roamed across the countryside in disguise, as a self-styled inquisitor, particularly at night. He discerned how the peasants lived, how well they worked, and what they were thinking about.”
But he wasn't specifically more kind or generous with the poor. There is one tale wherein he rounded up the nearby beggars and vagabonds and treated them to an extravagant feast. Once they had finished, they found all entrances to the house locked and were burned alive inside. Theories differ from: attempting to stop the plague; viewing the men as criminals; or simply finding them to be nuisances undeserving of life.

Terrified of his punishments, few dared misbehave:
“The most poignant story is that of a golden cup purposely left by Dracula near a certain fountain located near the source of a river. Travelers from many lands came to drink at this fountain, because the water was cool and sweet. Dracula had intentionally put this fountain in a deserted place to test dishonest wayfarers. So great was the fear of impalement, however, that so long as he lived no one dared to steal the cup, it was left at its place.”
He expected loyalty, hard work and 'moral' living from his countrymen. People who did not live up to his high standards were punished, including adulterers, unchaste widows, and 'impure' maidens. In Modrussa's report to the pope he said:
“He killed some of them by breaking them under the wheels of carts; others, stripped of their clothes, were skinned alive up to their entrails; others placed on stakes, or roasted on red-hot coals and placed under them; others punctured with stakes piercing their head, their navel, breast, and what is even unworthy of relating, their buttocks and the middle of their entrails, and emerging from their mouths; in order that no form of cruelty be missing, he stuck stakes in both breasts of mothers and thrust their babies onto them; he killed others in other ferocious ways, torturing them with varied instruments such as the atrocious cruelties of the most frightful tyrants could devise.”
Transylvania

Vlad is closely linked with Transylvania in the modern reader's mind although he was the ruler of Wallachia. However he was born and educated in Transylvania and it played a central role in his life. 

Transylvania was then a part of the Kingdom of Hungary, and is now part of modern day Romania. Wallachia was a vassal under the Ottoman Turks and is now also a part of Romania. 

Transylvania had a large population of Saxons and was in the midst of various political intrigues by Hungary and other neighbors. Dracula tolerated the Saxons although he was suspicious of the pope's influence through Catholic clergy. 

Problems began to arise when the mayor of Saxon city Brasov began encouraging subversion and supporting rival Dan III, who had himself crowned ruler by dissident boyars. 

In Sibiu, the mayor decided to champion the claims of Dracula's half-brother "Vlad the Monk", also supported by dissident boyars. And a third, but less popular rival named Basarab Laiota also rose. 

Dracula responded by cancelling commercial concessions made to the Saxons and beginning a trade war. In 1458, he led forces to destroy villages and the possessions of all of Vlad the Monk's followers. He moved on to attack the region of Dan III's supporters, butchering one whole town and impaling the few people left.

To punish Saxon merchants he had them impaled and their wares apprehended.
“Others he assembled “in a huge cauldron which was adapted with holes so that their heads could peer out. He then ordered boiling water to be poured over the cauldron and boiled them alive.”
Saxon disputes

 A new Hungarian leader came to the throne and negotiations began between Dracula and the conflicting parties. In November an accord was reached with Brasov: the city must surrender Dan III and extradite his supporting boyars. When the surrender failed as promised, Dracula set out with a vengeance.

In the winter of 1495 he raided Transylvania to seize Dan III and his supporters. He burned and pillaged, impaling any captives. In one particularly notorious incident:
“Their bodies were strung on Timpa Hill above the chapel. Dracula meanwhile was seated at a table having his meal; he seemed to enjoy the gruesome scenario of his butchers cutting off the limbs of many of his victims. Beheim tells us the additional detail that the prince “dipped his bread in the blood of the victims” since “watching human blood flow gave him courage.”
When a boyar happened to hold his nose in revulsion, Dracula had him impaled, telling him with black humor: “You live up there yonder, where the stench cannot reach you.”

Despite the raid he was unable to find Dan III and his court who had gone into hiding.

In March 1460, Dan III and the Brasovians took the offensive against Dracula: they seized towns, killed his supporters and organized a full-scale invasion of Wallachia.

The main encounter between the two princes took place on the Wallachia-Transylvania border. Dan lost the battle and was forced to dig his own grave before Dracula cut off his head; his boyar followers were impaled.

On August 24, 1460 - Dracula attacked the area 'Vlad the Monk' was hiding in. The city of Amlas was burned down and its citizens impaled. The village of Sercaia was razed; villagers were hung on hooks and pitchforks and then hacked to death. There was no help from the Hungarian king, or the Transylvanian governor who was forced to maintain neutrality.

On October 1, a peace treated was signed between Dracula's representatives and various city councils.
“Those German Catholic monks who were fortunate enough to escape from their monasteries, which had been reduced to ashes, brought with them to the west what in essence became the first Dracula “horror stories”. Thus, Dracula in his own lifetime became a subject of horror literature. 
Knowing that the European powers were too distracted by local politics to form any crusade, Sultan Mehmed decided the time was right to attack.

Sultan Mehmed II

 In 1460, Sultan Mehmed attacked strategic cities and captured Dracula's close ally Mihaly Szilagy - who was tortured and then sawed in half.

When a Turkish envoy arrived, Dracula was purposefully provocative and had their turbans nailed to their heads. By this time, he had not paid tribute for several years or given any boys over to the Janissary.

The Sultan invited Dracula to a meeting, but suspecting a trap - Dracula made excuses not to attend and offered 'good faith' gestures. An envoy was then sent, which managed to intercept some of his letters to the Hungarian king.

A kidnapping plot was hatched, but forewarned, Dracula escaped and then captured the two envoy leaders - another provocation.

From 1461 - 1462, Dracula's army fought the Turks on Bulgarian land. They managed to kill at least 23,884 Turks and Bulgars. Dracula placed heads, noses and ears in two bags and sent them to Buda - for the Hungarian king.

The Sultan responded by sending an army to capture a strategic fort. Its leader overstepped his mandate and raided deeper into Wallachia, which allowed Dracula's men to come in from behind and destroy half of it. Dracula went on to ask for assistance from from the Church, neighboring states and Europe, realizing the conflict would soon escalate.

Having had enough, the Sultan lead the advancing main army himself. In June 1462 he sent an advance contingent to Turnu. After fighting Dracula's army unsuccessfully they retreated. Dracula continued to deter them by using guerrilla tactics and a 'scorched earth' policy. He also practiced a form of germ warfare: encouraging the diseased (with leprosy, tuberculosis and bubonic plague) to dress in Turkish clothing and mingle with their army - thereby spreading sickness.

The Sultan and his army marched toward the capital Tirgoviste. On the night of June 17, 1462 - Dracula and his men attacked the camp at night, hoping to reach the Sultan and assassinate him. They were unsuccessful but managed to escape, having shaken the army's morale.

A few days later the Sultan was ready to attack. Roughly 60 miles from the city they encountered a gruesome sight:
“Strung along a mile or so in picket fence fashion in a huge semicircle, thousands of stakes of various heights held the remaining carcasses of some 20,000 Turkish captives … The entire area reeked with the stench of death – the smell of rotting flesh.”
They were awed at witnessing such a spectacle, and the next day the Sultan ordered them to retreat.

On June 22, Dracula's cousin Stephen III (now ruler of Moldavia) betrayed him by acting with Turkish troops to attack the fortress of Chilia. By July 11, the Sultan's army had arrived back in Adrianople; however, Dracula's brother "Radu the Handsome" stayed behind with a contingent of Turkish soldiers in a region of Wallachia. His task was to win the support of the people to replace his brother.

Fatigued from violence and war, the people turned to Radu and defected from Dracula. Radu was crowned prince and promised peace locally and with the Turks.

Dracula retreated to the Carpathian mountains, relying on guerrilla tactics with mercenaries and awaiting help from the King of Hungary's army.

Radu sent a group of men to find and kill Dracula, but being forewarned one night - he managed to flee and elude his assassins with the help of a peasant clan.

Finally the Hungarian king reached Brasov and met with Dracula. Unbeknownst to Vlad, the king had already secretly made agreements with Sultan Mehmed and Radu; their meeting was merely a diversionary tactic. On December 6, after Dracula's forces had been separated from him, he was seized as prisoner.

In Hungary, Dracula was held under house arrest, while Radu ruled Wallachia. But in time, Radu, Stephen III, and the Hungarian king Matthias began warring between themselves; Stephen wished to replace Radu with his own protege Basarab III Laiota.

After a battle between Stephen's and Radu's forces, Radu fled. The Moldavian forces captured Bucharest and proclaimed Basarab prince. Radu's forces continued to be beaten by the Moldavians, with Basarab retaining the throne. In January, 1475 - Radu died from syphilis.

After Basarab began cooperating with the Turks, King Matthias of Hungary decided to release Dracula and help him regain his throne, provided that he abandon his Orthodoxy beliefs and convert to Catholicism. Dracula promptly did this and then wed Ilona Szilagy, whom he had two legitimate children with.

Third reign and death

 Pope Sixtus IV called for a Christian coalition against Ottoman designs on Europe, since Sultan Mehmed had been attacking various states and worrying nearby rulers. Stephen of Moldavia was unhappy with Basarab's relationship to the Turks; so in the summer of 1475 he made peace with Dracula and asked for him to be reinstated on the throne.

In the winter of 1475 - 1476 King Matthias of Hungary lead a campaign to recover Bosnia from the Turks, with Dracula under his command (holding joint-authority with another). The king returned home and Dracula continued to fight, turning again to impalement and the burning and pillaging of towns.

He returned to Transylvania in March 1476 after getting formal support from the king of Hungary, the Church, and various other leaders. He helped his cousin Stephen of Moldavia liberate his territory from the Turks; then Stephen, Hungarian forces, and Dracula attacked Wallachia.

In early November there was a battle on the border and Basarab's army was defeated. On November 8, Dracula captured the capital Tirgoviste; he and Stephen formally sworn allegiance to one another.

On November 26, Dracula was reinstated as prince of Wallachia for the third time. However, now he was in danger from internal and external enemies: Saxons, partisans of Basarab, boyars, Turks and others he had angered. Basarab had escaped unharmed while Dracula focused on building up his kingdom from its fragile state.

In December, Dracula was attacked by Basarab and a force of 4,000 Turks - double the amount of his own troops.

There are different accounts of his death, but according to one chronicler: a hired assassin attacked Dracula from behind, cut off his head and brought it to Sultan Mehmed II, who put it on a stake in Constantinople for all to see.

The final resting place of his body is unknown, although the two most frequently mentioned places are the monasteries at Snagov or Comana.

Descendants

 Dracula had two legitimate children with his wife Ilona. The elder of the two stayed in Hungary with the king's retinue, and the second one died - likely from illness.

His eldest son (Mihnea), an illegitimate heir from a previous mistress succeeded to the throne in 1508 but only lasted two years. He had inherited his father's cruel streak and angered the boyars with his misdeeds; he was stabbed to death by a Serbian assassin in 1510.

The bloodline continued through male and female descendants but dies out in the seventeenth century. While some currently claim to be descendants, their claims are not verifiable.